From city to empire
According to Roman tradition, Rome was founded in 753 BCE, though the early history is a mix of legend and archaeology. Rome later became a republic, traditionally dated to 509 BCE, governed by elected officials and a Senate rather than by kings. Over several centuries, it expanded through wars and alliances, first across Italy and then around the Mediterranean. The long struggle with Carthage, known as the Punic Wars, ended with Rome dominant in the western Mediterranean in the 100s BCE.
The republic was shaken by civil wars in the first century BCE. After Julius Caesar’s assassination in 44 BCE, his heir Octavian emerged as the winner and in 27 BCE took the title Augustus, which is usually treated as the start of the empire. Augustus kept republican institutions in name while holding real power himself.
How far it reached
The empire reached its greatest extent in the early 100s CE, under the emperor Trajan, covering lands around the Mediterranean, much of western Europe, Britain, North Africa and parts of the Near East. Estimates of its population vary, so it is better to say only that it was one of the largest states of the ancient world.
Rome ruled partly through provinces run by governors, garrisons of professional soldiers, and local elites who were drawn into the system. Over time, citizenship was extended to more people, and in 212 CE an edict extended it to most free inhabitants of the empire. The empire’s stability in its first two centuries is often called the Pax Romana, or Roman peace, though that peace was enforced by military power and did not mean absence of rebellion or violence.
Life in the empire
Roman society was highly unequal. Wealthy senators and landowners lived very differently from farmers, craftspeople and the poor. Slavery was widespread and underpinned much of the economy, and enslaved people worked in households, mines and fields. Many cities had public baths, markets, theaters and arenas. The Colosseum in Rome, which opened in 80 CE, is among the most recognizable survivors, and many visitors today plan Colosseum visits to see how large public spectacles were staged.
Trade connected the empire to regions far away. Goods moving along Mediterranean sea lanes and overland routes included grain, olive oil, wine and metals. Some luxury goods, such as silk, arrived through Silk Road trade networks, which linked the Roman world indirectly with China.
Law
Roman law is among the empire’s most lasting contributions. Early rules were written down in the Twelve Tables, traditionally dated to around 450 BCE. Over centuries, jurists developed ideas on contracts, property, family and legal procedure. In the 500s CE, under the Eastern emperor Justinian, scholars compiled a large collection of Roman legal texts. This work later influenced the civil law systems found in much of continental Europe and in places influenced by them. Common-law systems such as England’s developed differently, though they also drew on Roman concepts. It would be an overstatement to say modern law is simply Roman, but the vocabulary and structure of many legal systems have deep roots there.
Language
Latin was the language of administration and, in the western provinces, gradually of daily life. Over centuries, spoken Latin changed regionally into the Romance languages, including Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanian. English is not a Romance language, but a large share of its vocabulary came from Latin, directly or through French. Latin also remained a language of scholarship and religion in Europe for more than a thousand years after the empire’s western half ended. For anyone interested in a second language, knowing a bit of Latin roots can help with others.
Engineering
Roman builders are known for practical, large-scale engineering. Key achievements include:
- Roads. A network of paved roads allowed armies, officials and messages to move efficiently across the empire.
- Aqueducts. Channels and arches carried water to cities, supporting fountains and baths.
- Concrete. Roman builders used a durable mixture, including volcanic ash in some regions, which allowed large vaults and domes. The dome of the Pantheon in Rome is a famous example that still stands.
- The arch. Repeated arches made bridges, aqueducts and amphitheaters possible.
These works are still studied as part of ancient architecture and infrastructure planning, and some remain in use or on display throughout Europe and the Mediterranean.
Division and end
In the 200s CE the empire faced economic stress, civil wars and pressure on its borders. It was later divided administratively, and the western and eastern halves increasingly followed separate paths. The Western Roman Empire is traditionally said to have ended in 476 CE, when the last emperor in the West was deposed. The Eastern Roman Empire, usually called the Byzantine Empire by modern writers, continued until 1453, when Constantinople fell to the Ottomans.
Why the West declined has been debated for centuries. Commonly cited factors include political instability, military pressures, economic difficulties, disease and the movement of peoples. Historians generally avoid giving a single cause, and it is better to think of a gradual transformation than a sudden collapse.
What lasted
Rome’s legacy appears in languages, legal ideas, roads and city plans, and in its myths and political vocabulary, such as senate and republic. Rome also became a model and a warning for later states thinking about global power dynamics, and its history is among the many ancient civilizations that visitors can explore at a local history museum visit or in the ruins themselves.